If you’re familiar with contemporary Japanese literature, the name Osamu Dazai might ring a bell. An uncomprehended genius, Dazai is one of those authors that transcended the language barrier, making an impact in the Western world. His most famous novel, the existentially reflexive No Longer Human, has become a cult classic, and is often considered one of the best Japanese novels of all time. He has been compared to literature giants Albert Camus and Clarice Lispector, for his thematic depth and fascinating style. Renowned horror artist Junji Ito even made a manga adaptation of the previously mentioned novel. Dazai was, to many, an unreplicable spark of creative genius. Except, this isn’t the whole story. Osamu Dazai wasn’t born in a vacuum and, at first, he wasn’t alone. He was part of a loose movement of writers, whose new approach to literature would shake Japan to its core: the Buraiha.
In today’s article, we want to introduce you to the Buraiha generation, also known as the Decadent School. These are some of the most celebrated, important and read writers in Japan, though they are barely known in the West. Beside Dazai, many of them haven’t had their work translated since the 1950s, which meant access to their literature was greatly limited for decades. It’s only recently, thanks to Dazai’s popularity and shows like Bungo Stray Dogs, that the Buraiha are starting to reappear on western consciousness. We hope this article can contribute to that growing awareness. So, without further ado, let’s dive in.
Background
Image credit: Britannica, Promulgation of The New Japanese Constitution (1889)
The first step into understanding the Buraiha generation is understanding the situations that gave birth to them. In order to do that, we must go back in time to the Meiji Era (1868-1912). Also referred to as the Meiji Restoration, this was a period marked by two events: the return of imperial rule, and the opening of Japanese borders, which, at the time, had been closed for more than 200 years. Relevant to our discussion about the Buraiha are the internal and external struggles these events presented to Japanese people.
On one hand, the country experienced rapid industrialization and Westernization. This meant the creation of new social classes, growing urban areas, new methods of transportation and Western influence in areas like architecture, fashion, and art. Eventually, this led to a renowned sense of national identity, one that combined with the growing Western influence. A new generation of “tastemakers” was thus born; they advocated for a blend of western structure and Japanese themes. These critics, for a time, dominated academic circles regarding what was “good art”.
On the other hand, the country struggled with the technological and military advancements of the time. To combat this, the Japanese state reintroduced, reformed and aggressively pushed for the Bushido Code (Way of the Warrior) in its society. In feudal Japan, a warrior’s highest duty was to his lord; now, a citizen’s highest duty was to the state. The Bushido Code was, subsequently, taught at schools, in no small part to increase Japan’s military force. By the Showa Era, the youth was enlisting to be soldiers, at a time when Japanese nationalism was leading them towards World War II.
Early Showa Era and Youth
Image credit: Histclo
As the Showa Era began its first phase (1927-1945), Japan had fully dived into colonialism, nationalism, and eventually World War II. By this time, many citizens had bought the ideals prompted by their government, and were more than willing to die for it. These were your kamikaze pilots and soldiers inclined to perform harakiri. However, amongst the youth, there was a growing internalized feeling their government was leading them astray.
The youth was to sacrifice their best years, the potential future of the country, and for what? To properly achieve the way of the warrior? To prove the elders they were worthy of respect too? The ideal future they were promised carried, to them, regrets: growing old without experiencing the joys of youth. These were, at the time, quiet thoughts, but their early existence is key to understanding the Buraiha.
In times like these, in any country, the youth usually finds refuge in the arts and literature. However, as we’ve discussed before, the new set of tastemakers had a very narrow definition of what made good art. Many younger Japanese people felt this art didn’t represent them. It was, for many, too Western, but without the individual spark that makes Western art special. And sure, it was Japanese too, but it was following a template on how to properly be Japanese, one promoted by a nationalistic regime. In a country as diverse as Japan, with many different dialects, all Japanese characters in the books championed by the new elite, spoke the same way.
After Japan lost World War II, the youth felt justified in their beliefs, but simultaneously felt they had nothing to aspire to. And thus begins a time of decadence, one that the Buraiha would adopt and make the most out of.
The Buraiha Generation
Image credit: Tokyo Cowboy
Now that we’ve arrived at post-war Japan, let’s introduce the Buraiha the same way Japan was introduced to them: Discourse on Decadence. This was a short essay written by Sakaguchi Ango in 1946, and it quickly became a sort of manifesto for the Decadent School. Although many of the writers we considered Buraiha published books before this essay was written, they personally knew Ango as a friend and mentor. Their ideals aligned perfectly with what he was prompting.
So, what is A Discourse on Decadence about? Essentially, the essay is a reflective piece on where the Japanese psyche stands after their defeat in World War II. Ango begins by directly addressing the bushido code, and how Japanese people adhered to it. He describes it as “inhumane and anti-human insofar as it is a set of stipulations against human nature”, but also, “a political work of art”. This is to say, the bushido code was designed to give people a purpose, and although it was going against human nature and even beauty itself, he recognized it was somewhat successful. In Ango’s words, “one might say that when people are permitted every freedom, they become aware of their own inexplicable limits and needs.”
Sakaguchi Ango thus usher in a new age of “Decadence”, not because Japan lost the war, but because “we are human, it is only because we live that we fall.” However, Ango urges people, and especially the youth, to embrace this decadence and create something beautiful out of it. As he so masterfully lays down: “We must discover ourselves, and save ourselves, by falling to the best of our ability.”
This is a message the Buraiha took to heart, falling to the best of their ability, writing from decadence, creating something beautiful.
Characteristics
How do you translate decadence into writing? How do you make something so abstract tangible? For the Buraiha, the answer was simple: speak your truth, especially if that truth goes against what the tastemakers were championing.
In an era dominated by Japanese characters that adhere to traditional societal norms, the Buraiha chose to write about the opposite. Their characters were anti-heroes, people who struggled both socially and financially, finding purpose in what little they could hold on to. Forget about emperors and samurais, let’s talk about my uncles and friends, who find comfort in betting on losing horses. Let people know sexual affairs exist all over them. Let’s write a novel starring a geisha and make her nuanced perspective the focus of the story.
Moreover, the Buraiha wanted characters that were close to them, in lifestyle and spirit. Many of them, most notably Oda Sakunosouke, chose to write in regional dialects, being some of the first to do so in Japanese literature. By doing this, the Buraiha doubled down on individual expression, with a style that felt similar to some of the best in Russian literature (Chekhov, Dostoevsky).
Buraiha characters were often aimless, accidentally stumbling upon a story or internally facing a conflict as they wandered. In many ways, these characters mimic their writer’s life, as they would spend nights in bars, use narcotics and have sexual relationships. As a matter of fact, the name “Buraiha” (Hooligans/Ruffians) was given to them by the conservative critics, who saw their lifestyle as banal. The youth, however, saw them as the writers that finally gave them what they were looking for.
The Main Writers
It should be clarified that the Buraiha wasn’t a formal school of writers but, as stated previously, a loose connection of them. After the publication of A Discourse on Decadence, many up and coming writers went to adopt the Buraiha label. Others, more established writers like Jun Ishikawa and Kazuo Dan, would also join in. However, when the term Buraiha is brought up in Japan, it overwhelmingly refers to three main authors.
We’re talking about three exceptionally talented individuals that drank together at Bar Lupin on two legendary occasions. Author whose work would come to define the Buraiha. These were Osamu Dazai, Oda Sakunosuke and Sakaguchi Ango.
Osamu Dazai
The most famous of the Buraiha and the one whose likeness we used to start this article, Osamu Dazai was a one of a kind writer. Born in 1909 in Kanagi, son to a distant father and a mother of poor health, Dazai constantly battled with the world around him. Following multiples suicide attempts and other personal struggles, Dazai met writer Masuji Ibuse, which helped him publish his first short stories. He quickly rose to prominence as master of the auto-fictional style of Watakushi Shosetsu, which was common at the time.
As his success as a writer rose, his personal life grew more tumultuous. He was diagnosed with tuberculosis, his wife cheated on him with his best friend, and he attempted suicide once again. People often point to this troublesome life as an explanation for his depth as a writer, especially considering his autobiographical tendencies. However, in understanding his relationship to the Buraiha, we get a more nuanced look at Dazai. Writing was, to him, a way to make sense of his surroundings, explore his truths, and escape the weight of existence. He found companionship through his brief encounters with the Buraiha, drinking in bars and dialoguing about what literature could look like. Readers look at his misery, but overlook what little joy he left us to see.
Eventually, Dazai would succeed in taking his life in 1948, shortly after publishing his most famous work: No Longer Human. We couldn’t recommend this novel enough, but it would be more appropriate, for the purposes of this article, to recommend some of his other works. If you want to see that spark of joy he left whilst he battled the world, works like The Setting Sun, Schoolgirls, and short stories like Run, Melos!, are great places to start.
Oda Sakunosuke
Image credit: Diario de Cordoba
A Buraiha in the truest sense of the world, Oda Sakunosuke ran from the world hoping his disillusionment could turn into beautiful prose. He was born in Osaka in 1913, studied Liberal Arts in Kyoto (though he never graduated) and would spend his last moments in Tokyo. His writing, however, was devoted to Osaka. The stories he told were, quite literally, grounded by his love for the city. The streets of Osaka became his words, the regional dialect gained literary agency through his writing, and even a political edge. In a Japan that insisted on standardized Japanese, his emphasis on Osaka and its colourful characters was rebellion.
Oda Sakunosuke wrote in an elegant, colloquial, personal and concise manner. His characters were anti-heroes, lone wanderers, who always found themselves a spark of hope in the world Osaka brought about. Additionally, his writing was brutally honest and often told uncomfortable truths, with a noticeable example being his stories about black markets and food shortages in Post-war Japan. For this reason, he was often censored, and it took some time until Japan recognized the immense worth of his assessments.
Sadly, Oda Sakunosuke literary production was very short, as he passed away at the young age of 33 in 1947, due to a lung haemorrhage. Osamu Dazai even wrote a eulogy to Oda, mentioning their brief meetings, how he personally related to him and his admiration towards Oda. Regrettably, there is little of Oda that has been translated to the English language. However, for those eager to dive into his writing, look for Meoto Zenzai (a short novel that even has a film adaptation) and The State of the Times, a short story that perfectly encapsulates his style.
Sakaguchi Ango
Image credit: Koratai
The last of the trio, and the one that articulated the Buraiha philosophy, Sakaguchi Ango was the most meditative of the three. If Discourse on Decadence wasn’t enough proof, Ango gave a lot of thought to his writing and the meaning it might have for future generations. This is understandable considering his upbringing: the twelfth child of a politician/poet, who lived in a Japan perpetually engaged in conflict.
He was a sensible and curious kid, concerned with the suffering around the world, often skipping classes (remember, in a nationalistic regime), to read. The name “Ango”, for example, was given to him by a teacher. He was born Sakaguchi Heigo, but in his quest to become a “Great Underachiever” he adopted the name “Ango” (easy-going), believing himself a rebellious dropout like Baudelaire. Moreover, his spiritual interest saw him become deeply involved in Buddhism. And, at university, he majored in Indian philosophy.
At first, Ango struggled to get notice as a writer, but with the release of two essays, A Personal View of Japanese Culture (1942) and Discourse on Decadence, his literary work came into the spotlight. Just like his fellow Buraiha, Ango’s life was short-lived, dying from a brain aneurysm at the age of 48, in 1955.
As a writer, Ango was capable of writing thrilling, satirical, poetic and politically charged stories. Just like Oda, his work hasn’t been translated much to English, but we will still give you some recommendations for you to explore his fascinating career. Firstly, his short stories regarding the war and its absurdity are a must, namely The Idiot and The War and a Woman. For his most poetic and satirical side, In the Forest, Under Cherries in Full Bloom and Unrelated Murder Cases (which has a film adaptation) are fantastic options.
Last Words
The Buraiha are a fascinating and deeply engaging part of contemporary Japanese Literature, yet one that remains largely unknown in the West. From their short stories to their novels, the Buraiha depicted a realistic and grounded Japan, true to its roots and aware of its flaws. The political edge of their writing was, to them, second nature, as their goal was to speak their truth, uncomfortable as it may be. In the process of doing so, they were able to touch the spirit of a generation of Japanese readers, who grew up admiring their daring dedication to literature. After the war, Japan was decadent, but thanks to the Buraiha, a new sort of beauty emerged from that situation.
We would like to end this article by insisting upon the lack of translations there are for some of these Buraiha writers. Oda Sakunosuke, for example, is beloved in Japan; and in Osaka, he is even celebrated as a local legend. And yet, his works remain largely inaccessible in English libraries. We hope this article sparked your interest for the Buraiha, and that you will seek to further explore this interest by pursuing their writing. Because when readers seek, they create demand, and if that continues to grow, we might see the Buraiha achieve the recognition they so rightfully deserve.
